Archive:Sustainable development - consumption and production

This Statistics Explained article is outdated and has been archived - for recent articles on sustainable development indicators see here.

Data extracted in July 2015. Most recent data: Further Eurostat information, Database.

This article provides an overview of statistical data on sustainable development in the area of sustainable consumption and production. It is based on the set of sustainable development indicators the European Union (EU) agreed upon for monitoring its sustainable development strategy. This article is part of a set of statistical articles for monitoring sustainable development, which are based on the Eurostat publication 'Sustainable development in the European Union - 2015 monitoring report of the EU sustainable development strategy'. The report is published every two years and provides an overview of progress towards the goals and objectives set in the EU sustainable development strategy.

Table 1 summarises the state of affairs in the area of sustainable consumption and production. Quantitative rules, applied consistently across indicators and visualised through weather symbols, provide a relative assessment of whether Europe is moving in the right direction and at a sufficient pace, given the objectives and targets defined in the strategy.

Table 1: Evaluation of changes in the sustainable consumption and production theme (EU-28)

Overview of the main changes

Resource productivity in the EU has improved in both the long-term since 2002 and in the short-term since 2008. Developments in the underlying indicators – GDP (GDP) and domestic material consumption (DMC) – over 2002 to 2013 suggest economic growth has been decoupling from resource use in the EU. This is mainly due to the large drop in DMC since the economic crisis began. Temporary improvements were also visible in many other indicators in the ‘sustainable consumption and production’ theme during the economic slowdown; however, some of these trends have started to reverse during the recent mild recovery. Therefore, it is debatable whether a shift towards more sustainable consumption and production patterns has actually occurred. This is particularly so for material use, generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes and, to a lesser extent, final energy consumption and electricity consumption. Hazardous waste, has continued to show a clearly unfavourable trend. However, some long-term improvements can be seen in waste treatment, environmentally friendly production patterns and pollutant emissions of ammonia (NH3), sulphur oxides (SOX), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC).

Key trends in sustainable consumption and production

Modest signs of material use decoupling from economic growth

In 2013, the EU generated an economic value of EUR 1.93 per kilogram of material consumed. This represents a considerable improvement in resource productivity since 2002, when the economic benefit created had only been EUR 1.52 per kg. This long-term efficiency gain occurred because GDP had been growing faster than domestic material consumption (DMC), in particular before the onset of the economic crisis. Since 2008, EU resource use has dropped sharply, putting DMC below levels observed a decade ago.

These divergent trends – GDP growing while DMC is falling – indicate decoupling of economic growth from resource use in the EU over the long-term period from 2002 to 2013. Decoupling has also taken place in the short term with material consumption falling sharply by 20.6 % between 2008 and 2013, surpassing the 1.3 % fall in GDP. Because the long-term trend was mainly due to positive short-term developments, the improvements in resource productivity are not likely to represent a major turnaround in resource use patterns, but rather mirror the impact of the economic crisis on resource-intensive industries such as construction.

Improvements in generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes, waste treatment and pollutant emissions, but hazardous waste continued to increase

The amount of waste excluding major mineral wastes generated per inhabitant in the EU was reduced by about 5.8 % between 2004 and 2012. However, this development is not likely to represent a sustainable shift because the indicator started rising again during a mild economic recovery from 2010 to 2012. In 2012, generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes varied by a factor of 13 across Member States, with the leading countries generating large amounts of waste from their energy, refinery and wood processing sectors.

The amount of hazardous waste generated among the EU-28 increased considerably between 2004 and 2012, from 180 to 200 kg per capita. The highest increase was in 2012, when hazardous waste generation rose by 3.6 % compared with 2010. In 2012, two sectors — the manufacturing industry and water supply, sewage, waste management and remediation — accounted for 46 % of hazardous waste generated.

Waste treatment practices have improved considerably in the EU since 2000. Landfilling, the least environmentally friendly waste disposal method, has been gradually replaced by incineration and even more so by recycling and composting. In 2013, about 43 % of the EU’s generated municipal waste was recycled or composted. These improvements have been to a large extent driven by EU and national strategies prioritising efficient waste management through various instruments. However, huge variation in waste treatment remains across the EU. For example, Romania landfills more than 95 % of its municipal waste and Malta, Croatia, Latvia and Greece more than 80 %, whereas Germany, Sweden and Belgium dispose less than 1 % of their waste in this way.

Similar improvements have taken place in the area of atmospheric emissions of acidifying substances and ozone precursors. Due to almost continuous declines since 1990, man-made emissions of ammonia (NH3), sulphur oxides (SOX), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) in 2013 were between 1.4 and 7.5 times lower than in 1990. A strong reduction of emissions occurred in the short-term period between 2008 and 2013, with average annual reduction rates ranging from 9.2 % for SOX to 0.7 % for NH3.

Despite recent progress, sustainable consumption trends remain volatile

Electricity consumption of households has risen more or less continuously since 1990. Growth in the number of households has been a main driver of this trend. Increased ownership and usage of electric appliances, which has outstripped efficiency improvements of electronic devices, has also contributed to the increase in overall electricity consumption — a phenomenon known as the ‘rebound effect’. Unlike other consumption-related indicators presented in this report, household electricity consumption proved to be rather unresponsive to the economic crisis, with the three major drops occurring before and after the economic downturn, in 2007, 2011 and 2013.

Similarly, final energy consumption in the EU has been rising since 1990. The year 2006, however, marked a turning point, with energy use stabilising and then experiencing strong fluctuations in the years after. The strong contractions in final energy use in 2009 and 2011 not only brought final energy consumption in 2013 down to pre-2000 levels, but also pushed the EU ahead in its projected path of reaching the 20 % energy saving target.

More environmentally friendly production patterns

Production patterns have also shown mixed trends in the EU over the past years. Although organisations have increasingly implemented a certified environmental management system according to the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) since 2005, this trend has reversed in the short term. Between 2009 and 2014, the number of EMAS registered organisations fell by 5.8 %. In contrast, farming practices have become more and more sustainable in the EU since 2005, as illustrated by the increase in the share of organic farming. This dynamic development has also been reflected in growing sales of organic products on the EU food market.

Main statistical findings

Headline indicator

Resource productivity

Resource productivity increased by 26.9 % in the long-term period between 2002 and 2013. This trend was mainly driven by a 21.8 % rise in resource productivity between 2008 and 2013.

Figure 1: Resource productivity, EU-28, 2002-13 (index 2000=100) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc100), (tsdpc230) and (nama_10_gdp))

In the long term, between 2002 and 2013, the EU economy increased the amount of economic value generated (in terms of GDP) per unit of material used (in terms of DMC) by about 27 %, from EUR 1.52 per kg in 2002 to EUR 1.93 per kg in 2013. In the same period, GDP grew by 1.1 % per year on average whereas DMC fell by an average of 1.1 % per year, indicating a decoupling of material use from economic growth. This long-term trend was influenced by strong resource productivity growth in the years following the economic crisis of late 2008. The short-term period between 2008 and 2013 was characterised by a pronounced reduction in material consumption (20.6 %), which surpassed the fall in GDP (1.3 %). This also pointed to decoupling of material use from economic growth.

• Indications of resource use decoupling from economic growth in the EU

In the long-term period between 2002 and 2013, DMC in the EU fell by 11.4 % while the economy grew by 12.4 %, indicating decoupling of material consumption from economic growth. Decoupling means environmental pressure is stable or decreasing while the economic driving force is growing. The largest productivity gains were recorded in the years following the start of the economic crisis of late 2008. During this period the resource productivity of the EU economy increased by 8.2 %, 5.1 % and 7.3 % in 2009, 2010 and 2012 respectively. This trend was largely driven by the significant and persistent drop in DMC (20.6 % from 2008 to 2013), which outstripped the fall of GDP during the economic downturn. In the short-term period between 2008 and 2013 resource productivity continued to track the changes in economic output with the highest level of resource productivity increases coinciding with falls in GDP in 2009 and 2012. Overall, between 2008 and 2013 resource use fell by 20.6 % while the economy shrank by 1.3 % in absolute terms, indicating decoupling of resource consumption from economic growth also in the short run. In this five-year period resource productivity recorded the strongest absolute increase since 2002 and exhibited the highest per annum growth rate.

• Progress in resource productivity appears moderate once other factors are considered

Nevertheless, caution needs to be exercised when drawing conclusions based on the observed trends. It is very likely that the large drop in DMC between 2008 and 2010 and the continued fall from 2012 to 2013 was strongly influenced by the impacts of the economic crisis (European Commission, 2014, p.5). Therefore, the long- and short-term figures on decoupling of resource consumption from GDP are not likely to reflect a major transformation of the economy and sustainable improvements in resource efficiency. Furthermore, the raw materials embodied in the growing amount of imports of intermediate and final goods from the rest of the world need to be taken into account (EAE, 2012,  p.101). Because DMC does not account for upstream ‘hidden’ material flows embodied in imported and exported products, the progress in resource efficiency of an import-intensive European economy might be overstated. The EU has shown continuous growth in the amount of material extraction and primary production that it outsources to other countries (European Commission, 2014,  p.5). So while direct material resource use in Europe seems to have stabilised, an EU citizen’s material ‘footprint’ is likely to be much more substantial at the global level.

Figure 2: Resource productivity, by country, 2013 (PPS per kg) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc100))

• How resource productivity varies across Member States

At the Member State level, values of resource productivity for the EU ranged from 3.76 to 0.63 purchasing power standards (PPS) per kg in 2013. These large variations in resource productivity result from a combination of factors such as sectorial composition and national economic structure (strong service and knowledge/technology-based as opposed to primary sector industry or raw material processing), specific resource endowments, degree of outsourcing of production, existence of resource policies encouraging recycling and re-use of resources and others (SERI, 2012,  p.50). In general, Member States with relatively high GDP per capita tend to have resource productivity levels above the EU average of 2.02 PPS per kg (the Netherlands, Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, France, Belgium and Germany). This is likely to be due to the high ‘value added’ generated in the economy from less-resource-intensive sectors such as financial, high-tech innovation and other service sectors, as well as high environmental regulation standards. An exception is Malta, which has above EU-average resource productivity (2.26 PPS per kg) and relatively low GDP per capita. On the other hand, countries with a large share of primary resource extraction sectors (such as mining and agriculture), sectors at the first processing stages (metal industry, chemical industry) and the construction industry tend to have the most resource-intensive economies and hence lower resource productivity levels (European Parliament, 2008,  p.9). The biggest resource productivity increases between 2002 and 2013 have been observed in Spain (121 %), Ireland (78 %) and Slovenia (64 %) . In some of these countries the improvements could be attributed to the drastic fall in DMC experienced after the building and construction booms. The EU Member States with lower per capita GDP show a significant potential for improvement, apart from frontrunners Cyprus, Malta and Slovenia. In most of these countries resource productivity has remained at relatively low levels.

• EU trends in resource productivity compared with other countries in the world

Since 2000, many of the EU Members States have ranked among the highest G20 countries in terms of material productivity . In 2013, the Netherlands surpassed all other G20 members with a resource productivity of USD 5.6 per kg of non-energy material. Only Japan came close with USD 5.2 per kg . Despite their continuous growth in resource productivity, in 2010 the United States (USD 3.1 per kg), Korea (USD 2.7 per kg) and Russia (USD 2.3 per kg) still lagged behind the best performing EU Member States and Japan. In the same year, the rate of resource use per unit of economic activity in the large emerging economies such as China (USD 0.5 per kg), Brazil (USD 0.6 per kg) and India (USD 0.8 per kg) remained comparable only with the lower spectrum of the EU Member States’ ranking.

 

Resource use and waste

Domestic material consumption

Domestic material consumption in the EU-28 fell by 11.4 % over the long-term period between 2002 and 2013 and 18.9 % over the short-term period between 2008 and 2013. The decline was mainly driven by decreased extraction after the economic downturn.

In the long-term, between 2002 and 2013, DMC — the total amount of material directly used by the EU economy — fell by about 11 %. The strongest reduction was observed in the short term, between 2008 and 2013, when the economy’s domestic throughput fell by 4.1 % per year on average. This rate of decline was about four times faster than its long-term average for the period 2002 to 2013.

Figure 3: Domestic material consumption, by material, EU-28, 2002-13 (million tonnes) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc230))

The main driving force behind the increase in DMC between 2003 and 2007 was continued growth in affluence and per capita consumption. This was particularly so in European countries with high average incomes and other Member States that have been rapidly catching up. Ultimately, this has increased demand for energy and resources (EEA,  2010,  p.4). In addition, globalisation and trade liberalisation have encouraged this spurge in domestic demand by providing easier access to global resources.

• The economic crisis strongly affected material consumption

After the peak in 2007, DMC dropped sharply, particularly between 2008 and 2009, due to the impacts of the economic slowdown (EEA,  2012,  p.21). The downward trend in DMC was reversed only shortly in 2011, mainly driven by increased domestic extraction during the mild economic recovery. However, over the next two years DMC was falling again, down with 7.3 % in 2012 and 1.6 % in 2013.

• Impact of the crisis on the construction sector significantly reduced consumption of non-metallic minerals

Apart from metal ores, all other main material categories of DMC have fallen over the long term. Fossil energy materials and non-metallic materials recorded the largest reductions in the period 2002–13 of 15.4 % and 15.3 % respectively. In the short term, consumption of all the main components of DMC reduced significantly, following the changes in economic activity during the crisis. Between 2008 and 2013, consumption of non-metallic minerals , which constitute the largest fraction of total DMC, fell by more than 28 %. Their share of DMC also decreased from 53.1 % to 46.5 % between 2007 and 2013. This trend is not surprising given that non-metallic minerals (in particular sand and gravel) are widely used in construction, which has been heavily hit by the economic crisis. In Ireland, Greece and Spain, which all had construction booms before the crisis and property bubble bursts (Eurostat, 2011, p.346-348 and p.351) afterwards, the demand for non-metallic minerals from 2007 to 2010 fell by 53.3 %, 40.6 % and 46.6 % respectively. Similar to non-metallic minerals, metal ores and fossil energy materials have also shown a sizeable reduction between 2007 and 2013 of 11.9 % and 15.5 % respectively, after their peak in 2007. The change in biomass in this period was negligible at 0.8 %. The downward trend in consumption of biomass, non-metallic minerals, metal ores and fossil energy materials was reversed in 2010–11 when most European economies experienced a mild recovery from the crises. However, it moved back onto its previous track as economic activity slowed again in the following years.

Figure 4: Components of domestic material consumption, EU-28, 2002–13 (million tonnes) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc220))

• Decline in domestic material consumption was mainly driven by decreased extraction

DMC has been declining in both the long and the short term, however, the period between 2008 and 2013 has witnessed the strongest reduction in material consumption of 4.1 % per year compared with 1.1 % for 2002–13. A closer look at DMC shows the reduction in both periods was driven mainly by a slowdown in domestic extraction of 17.7 % in the short term and 10.8 % in the long term. Domestic extraction — the amount of raw material (except for water and air) extracted from the natural environment — has followed the same trajectory as DMC. After declining steadily following the economic downturn, it recorded a significant upswing in 2011 before moving back to its downward trend in the following years. Changes in imports and exports have played a minor role. This trend represents a considerable shift after the prolonged period of growth in domestic extraction and imports, from 2003 to 2007, before the economic crisis. Since 2008 the growth of imports has been volatile. The downward trend in imports observed since the recovery from the economic crisis reversed for only a short period in 2010 and 2011, before declining again in the following two years. This implies that overall environmental impacts related to EU material consumption patterns have been decreasing outside the EU, but this trend does not seem to be stable and sustainable.

• Raw material consumption is a more comprehensive metric for measuring an economy’s material throughput

Although the DMC indicator considers both imports (added) and exports (deducted) through their simple product weight when crossing borders, it does not fully account for the ‘hidden flows’ of raw materials embodied in the production of traded goods. These embodied materials represent the amount of raw material extracted to produce all the traded goods. Thus, the DMC indicator is not a comprehensive measure of the environmental pressure of material consumption and might make cross-country comparisons ‘asymmetric'. The indicator raw material consumption (RMC) offers a more comprehensive metric by measuring the imports and exports in their raw material equivalents (RMEs). This measurement shows the equivalent amounts of all domestic extraction of raw materials needed to make the respective traded goods and services.

Figure 5: Comparison of actual material flow indicators with material flow indicators expressed in raw material equivalents (RME), 2012 (tonnes per capita) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (env_ac_mfa) and (env_ac_rme))

Figure 6: Comparison of domestic material consumption (DMC) and raw material consumption (RMC) by material, 2002 and 2012 (tonnes per capita) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (env_ac_mfa) and (env_ac_rme))

Figure 7: Raw material consumption per capita, EU-27, 2000–12 (tonnes per capita) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (env_ac_rme))

Figure 2.5 compares actual material flows per capita for the EU-28 with material flows expressed in RME per capita for the EU-27 in 2012. The first bar on the left shows domestic extraction (11.6 tonnes per capita) and the amount of direct imports in simple mass weight as they are actually crossing the border. These two components add up to direct material input (DMI) which accounts for all material resources used in production activities and available for all final uses (consumption and exports, shown in the second bar). The third and fourth bars show the same concepts expressed in raw material equivalents, which is the amount of raw material extraction carried out in the whole world to produce the traded products. The sum of domestic extraction and RME imports as well as the sum of RME exports and RMC represent raw material input (RMI). At 11.6 tonnes per capita, domestic extraction is the same for both DMI and RMI. However, RME of imports are estimated at 7.2 tonnes per capita and RME of exports at 4.6 tonnes per capita, which are much higher than actual imports (3.1 tonnes per capita) and actual exports (1.2 tonnes per capita). The difference between RME of imports and direct imports is mostly due to metal ores and the difference in exports is due to all material categories, with again metal ores a major factor. The amounts of gross metal ores needed to produce goods from this material category are several times higher than the weight of the traded goods . RMC is estimated at 14.2 tonnes per capita, 5 % higher than DMC. This difference is mainly a result of a much higher trade surplus of metal ores in RME, such as gold, copper and tin, than in the physical trade surplus.

When taking fully into account the indirect material flows embodied in traded goods, the reduction in material consumption achieved over the long term seems even larger. While DMC per capita was reduced by 12.6 % in the EU-28 between 2002 and 2012, RMC per capita recorded a slightly larger reduction of 14.4 % in the same period. This indicates the EU economy consumes considerably fewer raw materials per capita. As shown in Figure 2.3, the main driver for the reduction in DMC per capita has been the estimated 15.6 % fall in the actual use of non-metallic minerals. Although in the case of RMC per capita, metal ores have undergone the highest percentage reduction (21.4 %), the 15.5 % decrease from 7.4 to 6.2 tonnes per capita in the period 2002–12 in non-metallic minerals has had a major impact on the development of total RMC per capita. Furthermore, since the physical trade of non-metallic minerals is small and the trade balance in RME per capita is close to zero, the development of total RMC per capita is mainly determined by domestic extraction of non-metallic minerals. Non-metallic minerals mainly comprise construction minerals such as sand and gravel. This explains why domestic extraction of non-metallic minerals tends to be closely linked to gross value added in construction.

An analysis of consumption per person in the EU shows that in 2012 RMC was 14.2 tonnes per capita for the EU-27 compared with a DMC of 13.5 tonnes per capita for the EU-28. RMC per capita, which captures the material footprint of individuals or the average amount of raw materials needed to produce the goods consumed by a person in the EU, has fallen by 14.4 % over the long term between 2002 and 2012. Similarly to DMC, the largest drops were observed in the aftermath of the economic crises in 2009 (by 10.2 %) and in 2012 (by 7 %).

Generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes

The amount of waste excluding major mineral wastes generated in the EU-28 has reduced by 5.8 % over the long term between 2004 and 2012. This trend was reversed in the short term, with waste excluding major mineral wastes rising by 1.5 % between 2008 and 2012.

Figure 8: Generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes, 2004–12 (kg per capita) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc210))

Figure 9: Generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes, by country, 2004 and 2012 (kg per capita) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc210))

In the long term, the amount of waste excluding major mineral wastes generated per inhabitant in the EU-28 declined at an annual average rate of 0.7 %, from 1.9 tonnes in 2004 to 1.8 tonnes in 2012. This reflects reductions in almost two-thirds of the Member States, with particularly strong declines in Cyprus and Croatia. In the short term, the indicator has started growing at a rate of 0.4 % per year, from 1.8 tonnes per capita in 2008. The EU experienced a substantial drop in the amount of waste excluding major mineral wastes between 2006 and 2008 (6.5 %). This was most likely affected by the slowdown in economic activity during the economic crises. However, the falling trend in the period between 2006 and 2010 was reversed in 2012, with an increase of 3.3 %.

• How waste excluding major mineral wastes varies across Member States

At Member State level, in 2012 the generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes varied by a factor of 13, from 0.6 tonnes per capita in Croatia to 8.6 tonnes per capita in Estonia. The exceptionally high rate in Estonia is mainly due to large amounts of waste coming from the energy and refinery sector as a result of enrichment and incineration of oil shale. This also explains the high amount of hazardous waste generated in Estonia (see indicator ‘hazardous waste’ below). In addition, considerable amounts of wood waste contribute to the high figures in Finland, Austria and Sweden. Generation of waste excluding major mineral wastes decreased in 17 Member States between 2004 and 2012, with the strongest decreases occurring in Cyprus (63 %), Croatia (45 %) and Austria and Hungary (39 % each).

Hazardous waste generation

Output of hazardous waste increased by 11.1 % in the EU-28 over the long term between 2004 and 2012 and by 5.8 % over the short term between 2008 and 2012. Manufacturing and water supply, waste management and remediation activities were the two main sources of hazardous waste in 2012.

Figure 10: Generation of hazardous waste, 2004–12 (kg per capita) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc250))

Figure 11: Generation of hazardous waste by economic activity, EU-28, 2012 (%) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc250))

In the long term, between 2004 and 2012, the amount of hazardous waste generated by households and all sectors of the economy rose by 1.3 % per year on average, from 180 to 200 kg per capita. In the short term, between 2008 and 2012, the generation of hazardous waste per capita in the EU-28 has been increasing at the slightly higher rate of 1.4 % per year. The period between 2004 and 2006 witnessed the largest increase in hazardous output (12.7 %). This trend was diverted during the height of the economic crises in 2008 when EU-27 hazardous waste generation was reduced by 6.9 %. However, this was most likely the result of reduced economic activity (EEA, 2012, p.11), as suggested by its return to growth in the following years with a rise of 2.6 % in 2010 and 3.1 % in 2012. In 2012 the amount of hazardous output generated per capita almost reached 2006 levels with 200 kg per capita in the EU-28 and 201 kg in the EU-27, respectively.

• The manufacturing industry as well as water supply, sewage, waste management and remediation account for more than 90 % of hazardous waste generated

In 2012, the manufacturing industry accounted for more than a quarter of the hazardous waste generated in the EU (25.5 %). Water supply, sewerage, waste management and remediation activities were responsible for the second largest share of hazardous waste at 20.5 %. These were followed by the construction (16 %), mining and quarrying (13.5 %) and services sectors, excluding wholesale of waste and scrap (11 %).

• Substantial increase in cross-border trade of hazardous waste

In recent years there has been a substantial growth in cross-border trade of waste, including hazardous waste. Exports of hazardous waste have more than doubled between 2000 and 2009. This rise has been driven by differences in national capacities to handle waste and variance in the costs of recovery or disposal in different locations (EEA, 2012, p.5). Export of hazardous waste from the EU to non-OECD countries for recovery is prohibited since these countries do not have the capacity to manage this type of waste flows. Although most hazardous waste exports have stayed within EU borders (97 % in 2009), evidence is growing that a substantial share of Europe's electronic waste, which is normally classified as hazardous, is being exported to developing countries in West Africa and Asia disguised as used goods to avoid the costs associated with legitimate recycling (EEA, 2012, p.12). Treatment in these countries usually occurs in the informal sector, causing significant environmental pollution and health risks for local populations.

Recycled and composted municipal waste

The EU recovered and reprocessed 52 % more waste through recycling and composting in the long term, between 2000 and 2013. In the short term, the share of recycling and composting increased from 36.3 % in 2008 to 41.8 % in 2013. The shift away from disposal was driven by EU and national strategies for sustainable waste management.

Figure 12: Municipal waste generation and treatment, by type of treatment method, EU-28, 1995–2013 (kg per capita) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc240))

Figure 13: Municipal waste treatment, by type of treatment method, by country, 2013 (%) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc240))

Figure 14: Municipal waste treatment, by type of treatment method, by country, 2012 (%) - Source: OECD Statistics, Environment, Waste and Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc240))

Waste management in the EU improved significantly between 1995 and 2013. Not only did the amount of waste disposed of at landfill sites fall, but the amount of waste recovered and reprocessed through recycling and composting or transformed into energy through incineration also rose.

In the long term, the average amount of municipal waste generated per EU inhabitant fell from 1.43 kg per day in 2000 to 1.32 kg per day in 2013. Between 1995 and 2000 the amount of total municipal waste generated annually in the EU was gradually increasing, from 455 to 499 kg per inhabitant. In the following period, between 2000 and 2007, total EU municipal waste was more or less stable, fluctuating within the range of 514 and 523 kg per inhabitant. It was only in the short term, between 2008 and 2013, coinciding with the onset and aftermath of the economic and financial crises, that the total amount of generated municipal waste started to fall steadily, reaching 481 kg per person in 2013. In 1995, 64 % of municipal waste generated in the EU-28 — originating from everyday household waste and other sources such as commerce, offices and public institutions — was disposed at landfill sites. In 2000, more than half of municipal waste was still being landfilled (55.1 %). But by 2013 there had been a clear shift towards recycling and composting (41.8 %) and incineration with energy recovery (25.4 %). Waste prevention — the top aim of European policy’s ‘waste hierarchy’ — also seems to have been taken up across Member States, with 18 out of 31 countries having adopted waste prevention programmes by the end of 2013 as required by the EU Waste Framework Directive (EEA, 2014, p.30). The observed improvements in waste management have been to a large extent driven by EU and national strategies prioritising efficient waste management through various instruments. These include setting targets for recycling and recovery, imposition of taxes and other restrictions on landfill waste (EEA, 2012, p.24). The trend towards sustainable municipal waste management has also been reinforced by some external factors such as the increase in urbanisation and population densities and the rise in prices of raw material, recycled materials and fuels (EEA, 2012, p.25).

• How municipal waste generation and treatment varies between Member States

The amount of total municipal waste treatment in the EU varied from 747 kg per inhabitant in Denmark to 220 kg per inhabitant in Romania in 2013. Despite the large body of EU waste legislation, which has been in place for about 20 years, the dynamics of waste treatment vary greatly among Member States. Whereas Romania landfills more than 96.8 % of its municipal waste and Malta, Croatia, Latvia and Greece more than 80 %, Germany, Sweden and Belgium dispose of less than 1 % in this way. In large part, the vast differences in countries’ performance can be explained by their different starting positions, the existence of derogation periods for some, and the fact that some had started increasing municipal waste recycling long before they were required to by EU policies (EEA, 2013, p.31). However, formal transposition of EU law into national legislation is often not sufficient for achieving EU’s minimum target levels on waste management. In general, better performing countries in terms of landfilling and recycling tend to have a wider range of instruments and measures in place. These include active recycling policies in combination with ‘landfill bans on biodegradable waste or non-pre-treated municipal waste; mandatory separate collection of municipal waste types, especially bio wastes; and economic instruments such as landfill and incineration taxes and waste collection fees that strongly encourage recycling’ (EEA, 2015, p.51). Member States with dedicated and diverse policy instruments and strict regulations on waste management, such as Sweden and the Netherlands, deliver relatively high recycling (including composting) and incineration rates, both above 45 %. The large discrepancies across Member States reflect some gaps in the implementation of EU waste objectives into national legislation. These gaps are due to a series of technical, market or administrative barriers (DG Environment, 2011, p.11 and p.20).

• EU trends in municipal waste treatment compared with other countries in the world

At the international level , Europe is outperforming countries such as the United States and Japan with regard to shifting waste management practices away from landfilling and incineration towards more environmentally friendly ones such as recycling. More than 40 % of Europe’s waste is recycled or composted. The only country to surpass Europe is the Republic of Korea with almost 60 % of its municipal waste being treated through recycling or composting.

Atmospheric emissions

Pollution pressure from emissions of SOX, NMVOC, NOX and NH3 fell substantially in the long term between 2000 and 2012, with a strong decline occurring also in the short term from 2008 to 2013. Regulatory actions, in particular emission ceiling targets, contributed to the decline.

Figure 15: Atmospheric emissions, EU-28, 1990–2013 (million tonnes) - Source: European Environment Agency (online data codes: (tsdpc260), (tsdpc270), (tsdpc280) and (tsdpc290))

Overall, in the long term between 2000 and 2013 man-made emissions of ammonia (NH3), sulphur oxides (SOX), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), which led to acidification, eutrophication and ground-level ozone, declined in the EU. A strong reduction of emissions occurred in the short-term period between 2008 and 2013, with average annual reduction rates ranging from 9.2 % for SOX to 0.7 % for NH3. This trend of declining air pollution can be traced to 1990, when air pollution was between 1.4 and 7.5 times (in the case of SOX emissions) higher than today. Reductions in emission of certain pollutants over the past decades have diminished the pressure of harmful pollutants on human health and the environment. However, the complex links between emissions and air quality means this effect might not always translate into corresponding improvement in the exposure of ecosystems to these pollutants (EEA, 2015). A recent analysis suggests air pollution and its associated public health impacts will fall by 2020 across Europe as a result of improved regulatory actions. This might in turn lead to a reduction in public health costs (J. Brandt, et al., 2013). However, according to the latest conclusions of the World Health Organisation (WHO), air pollution continues to cause serious health impacts in Europe, contributing to much of the burden of lung cancer and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (WHO, 2013) (IARC, 2013). The WHO review indicates that large parts of the population are still being affected by less severe health impacts, such as continuous exposure in major cities. In this regard, the overall costs of the less severe health impacts may therefore be higher than the sum of the most severe effects.

• EU remains within the emission ceilings for the three main air pollutants

In 2013, overall EU-27 emission levels for SOX and NMVOC were lower than the EU-27 emission ceilings outlined in the National Emission Ceilings Directive (NECD), Annex II (EEA, 2015, p.8) . Based on 2013 provisional data, NOX emissions were also slightly below the EU-27 target (by 2.5 %), specified in Annex II to the NECD (EEA, 2015, p.9 and p.16). For NH3 emissions, for which no EU-27 emission ceiling target is defined in Annex II to the NEC, levels are below the aggregated emission ceiling of EU Member States given in Annex I. At Member State level, 10 countries reported emissions above the ceiling of at least one pollutant based on the provisional 2013 data. However, all Member States reported declining NOX emissions and more than three-quarters reported declining NMVOC and SO2 emissions between 2010 and 2013. Less than two-thirds had reduced NH3 emissions in the same period (EEA, 2015, p.17-198).

• SOX experienced major reductions due to cleaner energy sources

Of the four pollutants monitored here, SOX emissions, which affect air, soil and water quality, decreased the most in the EU-28. Between 2000 and 2013 they fell by 66 %, equal to a reduction of 8 % per year. Energy production and use, in particular through burning fuel in public power and heat-generating plants, is the main source of SOX emissions. It accounted for 75 % of total SOX emissions in 2013. Between 2000 and 2013 emissions from energy-related sources fell by almost 70 %, due to a combination of factors such as the economic crisis and its impacts on energy demand, increased uptake of renewable energy, a switch away from high sulphur solid and liquid fuels to low sulphur fuels and the closure of certain power plants (EEA, 2013, p.13) (EEA, 2013, p.5 and pp.35). Moreover, in the previous decade significant structural changes in eastern EU Member States since the early 1990s have contributed to lower SOX emissions. In recent years, however, high energy prices have led power plants in some countries to start increasing coal use again (EEA, 2010, p.24).

• Technology shifts and comprehensive environment legislation are mainly responsible for NOX emission reductions

EU-28 emissions of nitrogen oxides mainly stem from transport and energy production and use, where NOX is emitted during fuel combustion. In 2013 these two sources accounted for about 73 % of total NOX emissions. The 3.4 % annual decline between 2000 and 2013, from 12.9 million tonnes to 8 million tonnes, was mainly driven by a 44.5 % reduction in transport emissions. The decline in the energy sector (energy use in industry and energy production) was less pronounced, at 34 % for the long-term period between 2000 and 2013. Overall, EU legislative instruments most relevant for NOX emission reductions relate to emissions from motor vehicles (Euro emission standards) and fuel combustion in industry and power production (EEA, 2012, p.62). In the transport sector in particular, reductions have been achieved mainly through legislative measures requiring abatement of vehicle tailpipe emissions (EEA, 2013, p.13), although these standards have not delivered the scale of reduction originally anticipated. However, a considerable fraction of the vehicle fleet is still of conventional (pre-Euro) technology (EEA, 2013). In the energy-related sources, measures such as combustion modification technologies, implementation of flue-gas abatement techniques and fuel-switching from coal to natural gas have helped reduce NOX emissions (EEA, 2013, p.13).

• NMVOC reductions mainly due to stricter regulations and control of solvent use and emissions

Between 2000 and 2013 EU-28 emissions of NMVOCs, which are important ground-level ozone precursors, fell by 3.4 % per year, from 11 million tonnes in 2000 to 7 million tonnes in 2013. The main contributor to NMVOC emissions reductions over this period was transport, with emissions falling by 73 %. The 'industrial processes and product use' sector remained the main source of NMVOC emissions. It accounted for about 50 % of total NMVOC emissions in 2013, after declining moderately by 23 % between 2000 and 2013. Overall, the decline in EU NMVOC emissions was mainly a result of the introduction of vehicle catalytic converters and legislative measures limiting solvent use and emissions in non-combustion sectors (EEA, 2014, p.51).

• Changes in livestock numbers and use of nitrogen fertilisers drive NH3 reductions

Of the four air pollutants monitored here, EU-28 emissions of NH3, which contribute to acidification and eutrophication and affect soil and water quality, declined the least. On average they fell by 0.9 % per year , from 4.3 million tonnes in 2000 to 3.9 million tonnes in 2013. The transport and industrial sectors showed the biggest reductions, with emissions falling by 50 % and 17 % between 2000 and 2013, respectively. However, together they accounted for only 2.9 % of total NH3 emissions in 2013. The vast majority of ammonia emissions come from activities such as manure storage, slurry spreading and use of synthetic nitrogenous fertilisers in the agricultural sector. Overall the agriculture sector was responsible for about 93 % of total NH3 emissions in 2013. The average annual decline of almost 1 % between 2000 and 2013 in agricultural NH3 emissions was primarily due to reduced livestock numbers across Europe (especially cattle), changes in the handling and management of organic manures and the decreased use of on nitrogenous fertilisers (EEA, 2013). However, the large reductions achieved in the agricultural sector since 1990 (almost 29 %) have been slightly offset by the increase in emissions recorded over the same period in the road-transport sector, and to a lesser extent, the 'solvent and product use' and 'non-road transport' sectors (EEA, 2013).

Consumption patterns

Electricity consumption of households

Household electricity consumption rose by 14.8 % in the long-term period between 2000 and 2013. Growth in the short term has been much more limited, rising by only 0.9 % since 2008. A rising number of smaller households contributed to this trend.

Figure 16: Electricity consumption of households, EU-28, 1990–2013 (million tonnes of oil equivalent) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc310))

Figure 17: Electricity consumption per household, by country, 2005 and 2013 (kg of oil equivalent per household) - Source: Eurostat (online data codes: (tsdpc310) and (lfst_hhnhtych))

In the short term between 2008 and 2013 household electricity consumption, accounting for nearly one-third of final electricity consumption in the EU, grew continuously at an average rate of 0.2 % per year. This growth rate, however, was considerably lower than the annual 1.1 % increase over the long term (2000 to 2013). Since 2005, total electricity consumption of all households has increased by 2.6 %. This trend has been largely influenced by the rising number of smaller households. For example, between 2005 and 2013 the average number of people living in private households in the EU fell by 8 %, from 2.5 to 2.3, while the total number of households in the EU-28 rose by 9.8 % (European Commission, 2012, p.16) .

• Increased usage and rising ownership outweigh efficiency gains

Energy efficiency is a key target under the Europe 2020 strategy. However, one factor that might undermine the success of energy efficiency measures in achieving a persistent reduction in domestic electricity consumption is the ‘rebound effect’. For example, although the energy efficiency of some home appliances has advanced significantly over the past two decades, this has also been accompanied by rising ownership and usage, driving an increase in overall electricity consumption (EEA, 2014, p.137).

• Slowdown in household electricity consumption

Since 1990 household electricity consumption has grown more or less steadily. However, after reaching a record high of 72.7 million tonnes of oil equivalent in 2010, EU domestic electricity use experienced two major reductions of 5 % and 0.2 % in 2011 and 2013 respectively. This sudden slowdown was largely driven by significant reductions in several Member States.

• How electricity consumption of households varies between Member States

Overall, ten Member States experienced an increase in per household electricity consumption between 2005 and 2013. Romania, which has the lowest rate in the EU, recorded the highest increase of 27 % for this period, followed by Bulgaria with an increase of 23 %. In 2013 large cross-country variations were still persistent, with the extreme being a five-fold difference in per household electricity consumption between Finland and Romania. These disparities are likely to be influenced by a number of socioeconomic factors including variations in disposable income and electricity prices, but also by climate, lifestyles, average household size and energy efficiency of dwellings, among others (EEA, 2012, p.32).

Final energy consumption

Final energy consumption in the EU has fallen by 2.4 % over the long-term period from 2000 to 2013 and by 5.9 % in the shorter term from 2008 to 2013. Progress was helped by the economic crisis, the shift from energy-intensive industries towards services and energy efficiency gains.

Between 1990 and 2013 the amount of energy consumed by all end-use sectors in the EU increased by 2.2 %. This has offset the positive environmental impacts of improvements in the energy production mix and other technological developments achieved in the same period (EEA, 2013). Between 2000 and 2006 final energy consumption has been increasing almost continuously. The year 2006, however, marked a turning point, with energy use stabilising and then falling in the years 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2012. The short-term period between 2008 and 2013 was characterised by a much stronger reduction in final energy consumption (1.2 % per year) compared with the long-term period between 2000 and 2013 (0.18 % per year). This trend pushed the EU further along its projected path to meeting the 20 % EU energy saving target by 2020 .

Figure 18: Final energy consumption, EU-28, 1990–2013 (million tonnes of oil equivalent) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc320))

Figure 19: Final energy consumption, by sector, EU-28, 1990 and 2013 (%) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc320))

A number of EU policy objectives require a certain level of final energy reduction through improvements of energy efficiency and conservation.

• Energy demand constrained by the economic downturn, but energy efficiency policies have also played a role

After reaching a peak in 2006, final energy consumption started experiencing strong fluctuations. Not surprisingly, the strongest reduction in final energy consumption of 5.7 % in 2009 coincided with the biggest contractions in the EU’s GDP. This was followed by an increase in 2010 (4.6 %), mainly attributed to the signs of mild recovery from the crisis between 2009 and 2010 (EEA, 2015). However, after a second strong reduction of 4.6 % in 2011 final energy consumption stabilised at a level similar to that of 2009.

The fall in energy consumption over the past decades was partially influenced by the reduction in energy demand during the recent economic downturn, efficiency gains in the power sector and by end-consumers, and the shift from energy-intensive industries towards services with a higher value added (EEA, 2015). Energy efficiency and conservation policies and measures also played an important role in bringing final energy consumption on a sustainable track (EEA, 2015).

• Transport and services have driven final energy consumption over the past two decades

In 2013, as in previous years, transport continued to take the largest sectorial share in the final energy consumption mix, accounting for almost one-third, followed by households and industry amounting to 27 % and 25 % of final energy consumption, respectively. However, compared with the 1990s the transport and service sectors have undergone significant increases of more than 20 % and 40 % respectively. Increased energy use in the service sector has been attributed to the steady growth in the demand for electrical appliances (mainly information and communication technologies) and other energy-intensive technologies (air conditioning, for example) (EEA, 2015). The increase in the transport sector, on the other hand, was mainly driven by increases in passenger and freight transport (as a result of changing lifestyles, growing demand for private car ownership, growing urban settlements), which largely offset improvements in fuel efficiency (EEA, 2015). The rapid increases in passenger aviation between 1990 and 2005 have considerably heightened transport demand. However, between 2007 and 2013 the final energy consumption in the transport sector decreased by 9 % in the EU-28.

• Industrial and agricultural sectors have experienced substantial reductions since 1990

These unfavourable trends were to some extent compensated for by large reductions in energy use achieved in other areas between 1990 and 2013. Industrial and agricultural sectors reduced energy use by about 25 % each. This reflected EU Member States’ gradual transition towards service-based economies, a shift towards less energy-intensive manufacturing modes and the negative impact of the financial and economic crisis (EEA, 2015).

However, energy consumption should be seen in the bigger picture of other consumption patterns. The number of private cars in the EU in relation to the population (the motorisation rate) has increased in most Member States over the past few years, even during the crisis. This has also been the case for household consumption. The impact of the economic crisis on actual EU households' individual consumption was relatively moderate as government consumption at least partly counterbalanced a more significant contraction in household consumption (European Commission, 2013, p.1).

Production patterns

Environmental management systems

The number of organisations with Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) registrations in the EU increased by 31 % in long-term period between 2005 and 2014, but recorded a 5.8 % decrease in the short term between 2009 and 2014. A number of European countries with relatively high numbers of EMAS registrations were the main contributors to this declining trend.

Figure 20: Organisations and sites with Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) registration, EU-27, 2005–14 (number) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc410))

The number of organisations with an environmental management system, according to the ‘Eco-Management and Audit Scheme’ (EMAS) regulation in the EU , has increased significantly over the past years. This trend indicates rising interest of companies, public authorities and other organisations in environmental management systems. Whereas in the long term EMAS registrations by organisations in the EU have increased by 3.1 % per year on average between 2005 and 2014, in the short term they have actually decreased by 1.2 % per year between 2009 and 2014. The decline in several Member States with already high EMAS registration levels has been the main contributor to this trend reversal, including reductions of 90 % in Finland, 74 % in Sweden, 43 % in Denmark and 30 % in the United Kingdom. The number of sites with an environmental management system according to the EMAS regulation has also increased since 2005, at an even higher annual rate of 5.8 %. The highest increase of EMAS registrations was observed in 2008 (11.9 %). Thereafter, participation increased at a diminishing rate until 2013. In 2013 and 2014, the number of EMAS registered organisations declined by 7.9 % and 1.7 % respectively, suggesting that companies withdrawing from EMAS outstrip the recent increase of EMAS uptake in mostly southern European countries. The uptake of environmental management systems across Europe is in line with the wider effort at EU and Member State level to promote greater commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) among enterprises.

• How registration of environmental management systems varies between Member States

A core group of EMAS front-runner countries have mainly driven the trend in EMAS registrations. Germany, Spain and Italy have an exceptionally high absolute number of registrations. In terms of numbers of EMAS-registered organisations per million inhabitants, the uptake is also impressive in Cyprus (62.5), Austria (29.9), Spain (23.5), Italy (17.3), Germany (15.2) and Denmark (10.0) . However, a number of Member States with initially high absolute number of EMAS registrations, corresponding to their long-standing tradition of voluntary environmental management systems, have recorded considerable declines between 2005 and 2014. For instance, over this period the absolute number of registered organisations declined from 118 to 19 in Sweden, from 120 to 54 in Denmark, from 1619 to 1229 in Germany, from 41 to 4 in Finland, and from 25 to 5 in the Netherlands.

A partial explanation for this might be that long-term EMAS registrants face difficulties in meeting the ongoing demand for improvements in environmental performance, as required by the scheme. On the other hand, companies that have just introduced the scheme still have considerable potential for improvement . However, this decline happened against the backdrop of a pronounced increase in the absolute number of EMAS registrations in a few central and southern European countries in the period 2005 to 2014, namely Poland (from 0 to 45), Hungary (from 1 to 23), Cyprus (from 0 to 51), Greece (from 6 to 39) and Italy (from 258 to 1 017).

Organic farming

The share of total agricultural area under organic cultivation in the EU has risen by 42.5 % in the short term between 2007 and 2012. Agricultural policy support measures at EU and national level, such as conversion and maintenance payments for organic production, have encouraged the development of the organic sector.

Figure 21: Area under organic farming, 2005–12 (% of utilised agricultural area) - Source: Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc440))

Figure 22: Certified organic agricultural area in the EU-27 and in other countries, 2013 (% of total agricultural area) - Source: FiBL and IFAOM (2015) The World of Organic Agriculture — Statistics & Emerging Trends 2015 and Eurostat (online data code: (tsdpc440))

The agricultural area under organic cultivation in the EU has increased continuously by an average of 7.3 % per year in the short-term period between 2007 and 2012. The total area cultivated under EU standards for organic farming made up 5.7 % of the total utilised agricultural area in 2012, up from 3.6 % in 2005. This dynamic development was also reflected in the considerable growth in EU retail sales of organic products, which reached EUR 22.2 billion in 2013 compared with EUR 16 billion in 2007 .

• How organic farming varies between Member States

The country distribution of organic farmland in the EU does not seem to have changed much from 2005. The highest share of organic agricultural land (78 % in 2011) and holdings (83 % in 2011) is still held by Member States who joined the EU in 2004 or before, mainly as a result of the impact of European and national legislation on the development of the organic sector in these countries (European Commission, 2014, p.2). In 2012 Austria cultivated the largest share of organic land (18.6 %), followed by Sweden (15.8 %), Estonia (14.9 %) and the Czech Republic (13.1 %), as in previous years. Similarly, Malta and Bulgaria remained the countries with the smallest hectares of organically managed agricultural land, with only 0.3 % and 0.8 % respectively. However, the speed of growth in the organic agricultural sector from 2005 to 2012 differed substantially across countries. Some of the Member States who joined the EU in 2004 or afterwards experienced the largest growth in the organic sector in the past few years, partly as a result of the support already provided to this type of production before their accession to the EU and its subsequent increase afterwards (European Commission, 2013, p.9). Between 2005 and 2012, the fastest uptake of organic farming was recorded in Poland and Bulgaria, with a four-fold increase (although starting from a low level of 1 % and 0.2 % respectively). This was followed by Cyprus, Romania and Malta. In 2012, five of the Member States who joined the EU in 2004 or afterwards (the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Slovenia and Slovakia) already exceeded the 5.7 % EU average. Large disparities in the scale and development of organic farming between Member States are likely to be influenced by a number of factors. These include differences in organic production subsidies, regional production systems, market developments and existence of a 'facilitating' environment such as extension services, vocational training and agronomic research (European Commission, 2014, p.4) (European Commission, 2013, p.20). For example, between 2004 and 2005, 46 % of the organic area in the EU benefitted from organic-specific support provided with agri-environmental measures. However, this varied greatly between Member States with more than 90 % in Finland and less than 10 % in the United Kingdom (DG Agriculture and Rural Development, 2010, p.3).

• Barriers and incentives for organic farming

A number of factors may be holding back the development of organic farming in some countries. These include difficulty achieving high enough prices due to lack of demand, short-term surpluses of some products (such as a glut of organic milk in some Member States in 2000) or supply chain and institutional bottlenecks for organic producers (DG Agriculture and Rural Development, 2010, pp.18). The EU has created a broad framework to help organic farming grow across Europe.

• EU trends in organic farming compared with other countries in the world

At the international level, the EU continues to be a forerunner of organic farming. It outperforms by far a number of G20 countries such as the United States, Argentina or Australia. Whereas Australia and Argentina account for some of the highest shares among G20 countries with 2.7 % and 2.6 % respectively, the United States has only 0.5 % of its agricultural area under organic production . A driving force behind the dynamic expansion of Europe’s organic farming sector is its long-standing history, strong consumer demand and extensive application of an EU-level legal framework for production, distribution, control and labelling of organic products .

Context

Why do we focus on sustainable consumption and production?

Production and consumption of goods and services contributes to human well-being by satisfying physical and other needs such as food or shelter. However, current consumption and production patterns also harm the natural environment and human well-being. In particular they deplete the Earth’s natural resources and damage ecosystems. Making consumption and production more sustainable means responding to basic needs and improving quality of life while using fewer natural resources such as raw materials, energy, land and water. This includes reducing or eliminating waste and pollutants or lowering overall consumption through better management systems, improved product and service design, best available technologies and supporting sustainable lifestyles. In doing so, more environmentally friendly agricultural practices and environmental management schemes can boost biodiversity, landscape preservation and water and soil quality. All these aspects of the sustainable consumption and production theme are closely interlinked. Material flows influence the amount of waste and emissions produced, which can affect the well-being of people and the environment. Air pollutants from industry, transport and agriculture damage health, and contribute to acidification, eutrophication and physical damage of materials. Certain air pollutants, such as ozone, reduce plant growth, which is ultimately linked to an ecosystem's health and performance. At the other end of the chain, waste levels are also influenced by waste treatment. Increasing waste recovery by recycling and composting reduces demand for raw materials and resources extraction. Linkages also exist between increases in consumption and production patterns and negative environmental and public health impacts. Inappropriate waste treatment can cause environmental pollution and expose humans to harmful substances and disease-causing organisms, damaging their health. An ever-growing material consumption leading to higher imports and exports is also associated with more freight transport. As a result, increasing transport volumes led to higher energy consumption and emissions of pollutants (including particulate matter and ozone precursors) and greenhouse gases.

How does the EU tackle sustainable consumption and production?

The EU Sustainable Development Strategy (EU SDS) dedicates one of its seven key challenges to sustainable consumption and production, with the overall objective of ‘promoting sustainable consumption and production patterns’. The EU SDS operational objectives and targets:

• Promoting sustainable consumption and production by addressing social and economic development within the carrying capacity of ecosystems and decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation.
• Improving the environmental and social performance of products and processes and encouraging their uptake by business and consumers.
• The EU should seek to increase its global market share in the field of environmental technologies and eco-innovations.

The Europe 2020 Strategy unites two flagship initiatives under the sustainable growth priority to tackle the issue of sustainable consumption and production:

• ‘Resource efficient Europe’ helps decoupling economic growth from the use of resources. It supports the shift towards a low-carbon economy, an increased use of renewable energy sources, the modernisation our transport sector and promotes energy efficiency. The Roadmap to a resource efficient Europe is one of the main building blocks of the resource efficiency flagship initiative.
• ‘An industrial policy for the globalisation era’ improves the business environment, notably for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and supports the development of a strong and sustainable industrial base able to compete globally.

In 2008 the European Commission presented the Sustainable Consumption and Production and Sustainable Industrial Policy (SCP/SIP) Action Plan. It includes proposals on sustainable consumption and production that will contribute to improving the environmental performance of products and increase the demand for more sustainable goods and production technologies.

Further reading on sustainable consumption and production

• European Commission Communication (2014) 398/final 2, Towards a circular economy: A zero waste programme for Europe, European Commission, Brussels, COM (2014) 398/final 2.
• EEA (2013), Environmental pressures from European consumption and production, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.
• EEA (2015), The European environment — state and outlook 2015, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.
• EEA (2012), The European environment — state and outlook 2010: Consumption and the environment — 2012 update, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.
• EEA (2014), Resource-efficient green economy and EU policies, ISSN 1725-9177, Publications Office of the European Union, Copenhagen.
• ETC/SCP (2013), Analysis of latest outcomes of academic work on sustainable consumption 2010-2012, ETC/SCP Working Paper No 3/2013.
• SWD (2014) 206, Progress report on the roadmap to a resource efficient Europe, European Commission, Brussels.
• UNDESA (2011), Transition to a Green Economy: Benefits, Challenges and Risks from a Sustainable Development Perspective, United Nations, New York.
• UNDESA (2010), Trends Reports: Trends in Sustainable Development — Towards Sustainable Consumption and Production 2010-2011, United Nations, New York.
• Website on European Sustainable Consumption and Production Policies, DG Environment
• Website on the UN Marrakech Process, United Nations: DESA/DSD and UNEP
• Website on the UN 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and production patterns, United Nations.
• Website on EMAS – Eco-Management and Audit Scheme, DG Environment
• Website of the European Topic Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ETC/SCP)

See also

• All articles on sustainable development

Further Eurostat information

Database

• Sustainable Development Indicators, see:

Sustainable consumption and production

Dedicated section

• Sustainable Development Indicators

Methodology / Metadata

• More detailed information on sustainable consumption and production indicators, such as indicator relevance, definitions, methodological notes, background and potential linkages, can be found on page 73-110 of the publication Sustainable development in the European Union - 2015 monitoring report of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy.